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C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

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Date

UNIT 1 — MILESTONE 1

Classic Psychological Studies: Communicating Observed Behavior

In the field of psychology, description refers to the precise articulation of behaviors that have been observed or measured through systematic observation. Observation involves directly perceiving an individual’s actions or responses, while description transforms those observations into structured, scientific narratives that can be analyzed, replicated, and compared across studies. Accurate behavioral communication ensures that researchers share a unified understanding of human actions, which contributes to replicability and theoretical advancement in psychological science (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
In psychology, communicating what you see happening with behavior is known as __________.	Description	Observation entails noticing behavior, whereas description is the scientific communication of those behavioral observations to others for research and analysis.

Goals and Definitions: Focus of Behaviorists

Behaviorism is a psychological approach that centers on observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting the study of unobservable mental processes. Behaviorists maintain that environmental conditions and learning experiences are the primary determinants of human behavior. Through classical and operant conditioning, they demonstrate how behaviors can be acquired, maintained, or modified. This objective, empirical orientation differentiates behaviorism from introspective and cognitive perspectives that emphasize internal thought processes (Skinner, 1953).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Behaviorists study __________.	The effects of learning and the environment on behavior	Behaviorists focus exclusively on how external stimuli and learned associations shape behavioral responses, disregarding internal cognitive states.

History of Psychological Theories: Behaviorism and Gestalt – Stimulus and Response

The behaviorist model proposes that behavior results from a stimulus-response (S–R) relationship. A stimulus refers to any external environmental factor that elicits a behavioral reaction, whereas a response is the observable behavior triggered by that stimulus. Over time, individuals develop learned associations through repetition and reinforcement, giving rise to predictable patterns of behavior. This concept was foundational to the work of John B. Watson, who sought to make psychology an objective science rooted in measurable phenomena (Watson, 1913).

Key Term	Definition
Stimulus	An external event or condition that triggers a behavioral response.
Response	The observable behavior or reaction following exposure to a stimulus.

Research Design in Psychology: Independent Variables

In psychological research, independent variables (IVs) represent the factors that experimenters deliberately manipulate to determine their causal influence on dependent variables (DVs). By systematically varying these variables, researchers can identify cause-and-effect relationships and better understand behavioral mechanisms. The rigorous control of independent variables strengthens the validity and reliability of experimental outcomes (Field, 2018).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Variables in an experiment that are changed and controlled by the experimenter are called __________.	Independent variables	Independent variables are deliberately manipulated by the researcher to observe how they affect dependent variables, thereby revealing causal relationships.

Factors That Impact Research Results: Controlling Bias

A double-blind study is a methodological technique designed to minimize bias in psychological research. In this approach, neither the participants nor the researchers know which individuals belong to the control or experimental group. This procedure prevents conscious or unconscious influences from affecting data collection or interpretation, leading to more objective and reliable findings (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008).

Question	Answer	Explanation
__________ is a method of controlling bias in which both the experimenter and the subjects do not know who is experiencing the experimental conditions.	A double-blind study	The double-blind method prevents expectancy effects and biases from influencing outcomes, promoting objective data interpretation.

Three Levels of Analysis: Biological Perspective

The biological perspective explores how genetics, neurobiology, and evolution contribute to behavior. This framework examines the influence of brain structures, neurotransmitters, and inherited traits in shaping emotional, cognitive, and behavioral patterns. By understanding how physiological processes interact with environmental pressures, the biological approach provides a comprehensive view of human functioning rooted in both nature and evolution (Pinel, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which perspective emphasizes the role of genetics and natural selection in the development of human behavior?	Biological perspective	This approach underscores the importance of hereditary and evolutionary factors in influencing how organisms behave and adapt over time.

History of Psychological Theories: Structuralism, Functionalism, and Freud – Founder of Psychodynamic Theory

Sigmund Freud, the originator of psychodynamic theory, proposed that unconscious motives, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts are key determinants of human behavior. His psychoanalytic model emphasized that unresolved inner tensions could lead to psychological distress and maladaptive behavior. Freud’s theory revolutionized psychology by introducing the concept of the unconscious mind and laying the groundwork for modern psychotherapy (Freud, 1923).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Who founded psychodynamic theory?	Sigmund Freud	Freud introduced the idea that unconscious thoughts and early experiences influence behavior and emotional development.

History of Psychological Theories: Cognitive Psychology and Humanism – Humanism and the Hierarchy of Needs

Humanistic psychology, advanced by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focuses on personal growth, free will, and the innate drive toward self-actualization. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs outlines a motivational framework where individuals progress from fulfilling basic physiological needs to achieving higher psychological and self-fulfillment goals. This theory highlights human potential and the intrinsic motivation for self-improvement (Maslow, 1943).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which scientist significantly contributed to humanistic psychology through the hierarchy of needs?	Abraham Maslow	Maslow’s hierarchy conceptualizes human motivation as a progression from basic survival needs to self-actualization and personal growth.

The Scientific Method and Research Methods: Biased Samples

A biased sample occurs when the participants selected for a study do not accurately represent the target population, leading to limited generalizability and potential distortion of results. To reduce this issue, researchers employ random sampling techniques to ensure equal representation and minimize systematic bias, thereby enhancing the credibility and external validity of the research (Gravetter & Forzano, 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What describes a biased sample?	A sample that is not representative of a population	Biased samples skew results and reduce generalizability, emphasizing the need for randomization in research design.

Ethics in Psychological Research: APA Code of Conduct

The APA Code of Ethics establishes clear guidelines to ensure the protection, dignity, and welfare of research participants. These ethical principles emphasize informed consent, confidentiality, and the avoidance of harm. By upholding these standards, psychologists ensure that research is conducted with integrity, transparency, and respect for participants’ rights (APA, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What is a central focus of the APA Professional Code of Conduct for psychologists?	Protecting the welfare of clients	The APA Code promotes ethical responsibility, ensuring that psychological practice prioritizes participant safety and moral integrity.

References

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. W.W. Norton & Company.

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2020). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

Pinel, J. P. J. (2017). Biopsychology (10th ed.). Pearson Education.